Book Review: How Languages are Learned

Book Review: How Languages are Learned.

By Patsy M. Lightbown and Nina Spada.

Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1996. 135pp.

ISBN 0 19 437169 7

This book is yet another state-of-the-art survey of second language acquisition. It is the result of the two authors' extensive experience in classroom-centred research on second language acquisition. The book is organised into six chapters. The introduction, the recommended readings concluding each chapter, the glossary of the words that have special or technical meaning within second language acquisition research and language teaching, the bibliography and the index are all admirable. In the introduction, the authors make what seems to be an unusually commonsense point. We are told that 'One important basis for evaluating the potential effectiveness of new methods is, of course , the teacher's own experience with previous successes or disappointments. In addition, teachers who are informed of some of the findings of recent research are better prepared to judge whether the new proposals for language teaching are likely to bring about positive changes in students' learning '. In this introduction, we are also invited to reflect upon (1) twelve popular views about how languages are learned and (2) what the implications are in respect of how these languages should be taught. The questionnaire used for this purpose has been professionally executed. I outline these views below as they are, taken as a whole, an organiser for five chapters (1-5) of the book and as they engage us personally throughout the remainder of the book.

1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation.
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors.
3. People with high IQs are good language learners.
4. The most important factor in second language acquisition success is motivation.
5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success in learning.
6. Most of the mistakes which second language learners make are due to interference from their first language.
7. Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time, and learners should practice examples of each one before going on to another.
8. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones.
9. Learners' errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits.
10. Teachers should use materials that expose students only to those language structures which have already been taught.
11. When learners are allowed to interact freely ( for example in group or pair activities), they learn each other's mistakes.
12. Students learn what they are taught.

Print, Reading and Social Change

This book review, written for an academic audience, is not easy reading. I apologize in advance. However, the book under review relates directly to "reading and social change." As such, you may find the review interesting and worth the effort to read.

Book:	Reading Ireland: Print, Reading and Social Change in Early Modern Ireland by Raymond Gillespie, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Manchester Manchester University Press, 2005 ISBN: 071905527
Reviewer:	Joad Raymond, University of East Anglia

Review

Raymond Gillespie's Reading Ireland sketches the impact of print in early-modern Ireland. It is a wide ranging and stimulating overview that touches upon many of the themes that have shaped recent histories of books in other European countries, but especially in Britain.

It falls into three parts. The first discusses the social impact and social meanings of print. In chapter 1, Gillespie explores the relations between and among oral communications, printed books and manuscripts, and, fascinatingly, the iconic value of books in a low-literacy society. In chapter 2, he looks at changes in writing practices and attitudes to writing that develop through the exchange and production of property deeds. These are the consequence of political centralisation, and thus initially affect the English within the Pale, though they soon extended into the provinces. The spread of a 'textual culture' in Ireland, and the consequent increases in literacy, is closely related to legal documentation of land ownership.

The second part traces the introduction and establishment of print in Ireland between 1550 and 1700, and is mainly focused on printing and the book trade. Chapter 3 tells the story of 'the coming of print' from 1550 to 1650, during which the development of the trade was restricted by under-capitalisation. Expansion was given a fillip by the 1641 rebellion, and the impact of war sharpened political polemic. Nonetheless, throughout the seventeenth century the Irish book trade had a 'colonial feel' because it was dominated by English language books, by imported books and imported printing conventions. It was the lack of capital investment, the significance of imports and linguistic division that distinguished the ascendancy of the book in Ireland from that in England. Nonetheless, as chapter 4 shows, print did triumph in the later seventeenth century, and in doing so it spread from Dublin into the provinces. This development was linked to both 'the rise of bilingualism' and entrepreneurial ambition.

The third part consists of three chapters on reception and reading, and uses a variety of evidence, both manuscript and printed, to show how readers responded, or were intended to respond to the advent of print. 'Reading for power' looks at the role of print in state formation, including the use of legal manuals, military manuals, propaganda and pre-printed forms for leases and other legal transactions. Print was increasingly used by state and church for practical purposes, but also to shape and influence culture through literary technologies. Readers were nonetheless able to resist print and to put it to their own uses.